CALL

INTRODUCTION
 
The main purpose of this resource booklet is to give Thai university English language teachers a brief overview of the development of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and how computers have been used or can be used for English language teaching (ELT) and learning. Its focus is on the history of CALL, uses of CALL in English language teaching, and advantages and limitations of CALL.
The chapter is divided into 5 sections: (1) Definition of CALL, (2) History of CALL Development, (4) Uses of CALL in English Language Teaching, (5) Advantages and Limitations of CALL, and (6) Tips in using CALL. A CALL bibliography (printed materials and online resources), as a resource for interested ELT teachers, is available at the end of the volume.

Definition of CALL
 
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is defined as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning." (Levy, 1997: 1) The main aim of CALL is to find ways for using computers for the purpose of teaching and learning the language. More specifically, CALL is the use of computer technologies that promote educational learning, including word processing, presentation packages, guided drill and practice, tutor, simulation, problem solving, games, multimedia CD-ROM, and internet applications such as e-mail, chat and the World Wide Web (WWW) for language learning purposes. There are several terms associated with CALL. CALL is variously known as Computer-Aided Language Learning (CALL), Computer-Assisted Language Instruction (CALI) and Computer-Enhanced Language Learning (CELL). The first two terms generally refer to computer applications in language learning and teaching, while CELL implies using CALL in a self-access environment (Hoven, 1999).
 
 
 
Why CALL?

The reasons why ELT teachers use CALL:

• Computers can do some of the work of the teacher and provide great assistance to the learner even without the presence of the teacher (Pennington and Steven, 1992).
• New technologies have seen computers become smaller, faster, and easier for the teacher to use (Evy, 1997). At present, well-designed CALL software is readily available to the teacher.
• Technologies allow computers to do multimedia applications, incorporating video, sound, and text, and this capacity allows the learner to interact with both the program and other learners. (Felix, 1998).
• The computer offers great flexibility for class scheduling and pacing of individual learning, choosing activities and content to suit individual learning styles. (Oxford and others, 1998)
• The computer can provide a meaning-focused, communicative learning environment, which serves the purposes of communicative language teaching.

HISTORY OF CALL DEVELOPMENT
This section gives a brief history of CALL development. The review aims at showing, chronologically, the development of CALL over the last 30 years by linking to important technological developments, theories of learning and language teaching approaches. Some key examples of CALL programs and projects developed in this period are also shown. Warschauer (1996) divides CALL into phases of development as follows: Behavioristic CALL, Communicative CALL, Integrative CALL (Multimedia CD-ROM), and Integrative CALL (Internet). The beginning of a new phase does not necessary mean the end of programs and methods of the previous phase, rather the old is included within the new (Warschauer, 1996).
The historical development of CALL is summarized in the following table:
 
 
 
 
 
  Behavioristic CALL
 

Main-frame and Mini Computers (1950s-1970s)
Technological Development by Year	Approaches to Language Teaching	Approaches to CALL & Examples
1950 - Mathematician and computer pioneer Alan Turing predicted that one day there would be a machine that could duplicate human intelligence in every way. 1951- Whirlwind, the first real-time computer was built. 1957- FORTRAN language was developed. 1959-COBOL (Common Business-Orientated Language) was developed. 1960-Tandy Corporation founded. 1964-DEC Mini Computer was built. 1965-BASIC language was developed. 1967-Development on PASCAL 1968-LOGO language was developed. 1970-Development of UNIX operating system. 1971-First Microprocessor-4004 was invented. 1972-C language was developed. 1972-8008 Processor was released by Intel. 1972-The first international connections to ARPANET are established. ARPANET became the basis for the internet. 1974-Introduction of 8080. An 8 Bit Microprocessor from Intel. 1975-Formation of Microsoft by Bill Gates and Paul Allen. 1976-Apple Computer, Inc. founded, releasing the Apple II, first mass-market of PC. 1979-Introduction of 8088 processor. 1979-Compact disk was invented.	Empiricist theory Behaviorism Audiolingualism Structural Linguistics Principles of Language Learning: Focus on stimulus, response, reinforcement. Language learning is a process of habit-formation. Focus on drill and practice. Learn through imitation and repetition. Give immediate feedback. Individualized instruction was included to serve the pace of the learner.	Behavioristic CALL (eg. PLATO project: Aims at providing interactive, self-paced learning using mainframe computers.) Main characteristics of behavioristic CALL: Based on behaviorist theory of learning. Focus on receptive drills. Mainly drill and practice type software. Computer as tutor. Learning activities promote language accuracy rather than fluency. Designed to be implemented on mainframe and mini computers. Criticism of Behavioristic CALL: The Behaviorism and Audiolingualism were rejected theoretically and pedagogically by theorists and practitioners.

  Communicative CALL
 

Personal Computers (PC) (1980s)
Technological Development  by Year	Approaches to Language Teaching	Approaches to CALL & Examples
1980-Development of MS-DOS/PC-DOS began by Microsoft 1981-The first WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing Devices) by The Xerox Palo Alto Research Lab. 1982-The TCP/IP Protocol established, and the "Internet" is formed. 1982-80286 processor was released. Compaq released their IBM PC compatible 1983-MS-DOS 2.0 was released. Hewlett-Packard released LaserJet printer AT was released. Apple Macintosh was released. 1984- MS-DOS 3.0 was released. 80386 DX was released. 1985- Microsoft Windows was launched. 1985- EGA was released. 1985 - 80386 DX was released VGA was released 1988 - MS-DOS 4. The development of word processing such as: WordMaster WordStar WordPerfect	Cognitive  Psychology Communicative Language Teaching Transformational Grammar Principles of Language Learning: Learning is process of discovery, expression, and development. Focus on functions of the language. Emphasise on language use rather than usage. Contextualization is important. Communicative competence is the desired goal. Focus on using language forms rather than forms themselves. Teach grammar implicitly. Encourage students to produce language rather than manipulate the language, (Brown, 1994).	Communicative CALL: (e.g. Storyboard, Text reconstruction, Cloze exercises)  Serious educational applications appeared. A boom of CALL due to the introduction of Personal Computer Main Characteristics: View that drill and practice exercises did not yield enough genuine communication. Computer-based activities Focus on using the language in context. Non-Drill Practice format Type Text reconstruction Paced reading Cloze exercises Criticism of Communicative CALL: Computers were not fully well integrated into the curriculum. The greater contribution is on marginal rather than the central educational elements.

 
 
  Integrative CALL: multimedia CD-ROM
 

Multimedia CD-ROM (1980s-1990s)
Technological Development  by Year	Approaches to Language Teaching	Approaches to CALL & Examples
1982 Audio CDs was introduced 1982 Book on Audio CDs was introduced by Sony and Phillips--beginning of the Compact Disk 1982 MIDI, Musical Instrument Digital Interface was introduced. CD-ROM, invented by Phillips, produced by Sony 1989 CD-I released by Phillips and Sony. 1989 Release of Sound Blaster Card, by Creative Labs 1990 Introduction of Windows 3.0 by Bill Gates & Microsoft. 1990 - MPC (Multimedia PC) was introduced. 1991 - 80486 DX was released. A sound card and triple speed CD-ROM were added. 1992 Introduction of CD-I launched by Phillips. 1993 Pentium released 1993 a CD-ROM drive capable of 300KB/sec (double speed) was introduced.	Humanistic Approach Focus on Communicative Language Teaching: Focus on meaning. Use of authentic, meaningful and contextualized materials. Fluency in language is a primary goal. Focus on interactive language learning. Consider learners’ factors such as age, interest, learning styles, motivation. Tasks relevant to students’ real life interests and experiences (Felix, 1998) Shift away from language usage to language use (Felix, 1998) The teacher became a facilitator rather than the person who gives out information.	Integrative CALL:Multimedia CD- ROM (eg.Toolbook, Authorware, Planet English, Real English, Wiser Educator) Main Characteristics Use advantages of multimedia CD-ROM in teaching language for communicative purposes. Allow computer to incorporate a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) by Hypermedia.  Emerge of friendly-user, powerful authoring software such as ToolBook, Authorware, and Director. Based on communicative language teaching approach Built on student's intrinsic motivation Foster the interactivity between the learner and the learner, and learner and computer. Multimedia resources are linked together. Learners can navigate their own path and set their own pace by pointing and clicking mouse. More authentic language learning environment is created.  The four language skills are integrated.  Focus on content and language skills. Allow learners to link to a variety of sources such as grammatical explanations, glossaries, pronunciation, exercises, etc.

 
 
  Integrative CALL: internet applications
 

Computer-Mediated Communication (Internet) (1990s)
Technological Development  by Year	Approaches to Language Teaching	Approaches to CALL & Examples
1969-Computer-mediated communication (CMC) but serious applications appeared in early 1990s. 1960s-Hypertext was invented by Ted Nelson. 1989- World Wide Web--the integration of hypertext and the Internet- was invented by Tim Berners-Lee. 1990- Internet applications became popular such as E-mail, FTP, Talk (UNIX system) 1992- Gopher was released. The release of CERN (WWW), a hypertext based system for finding and accessing internet resources. 1993- Mosaic (Web browser) was released.) 1994- Netscape 1.0 was released. 1995- Windows '95 was launched with Internet Explorer by Bill Gates & Microsoft. 1995 - JavaScript was introduced by Netscape. 1998 – Windows’98 was released. 1995-1999 - Development of: QuickTime Real Audio  Real Movie Shockwave Web-based E-mail  Web-based Chat Voice Chat Internet Phone Emerge of web authoring software such as Hot Potatoes, Authorware, and Director. Desktop Conferencing	Communicative Language Teaching Focus on using the internet applications for communicative language teaching: Foreign language learning will be an acquisition of language content through purposeful and reflective participation. The curriculum is dynamic. The role of the teacher is a facilitator, an inseminator of ideas, who draws student’s motivation. The learner is responsible, reflective and creative. Textbook is a resource along with electronic resources. Classroom becomes a reconfigurable space with electronic facilities. (Debski (1997:47-48)	Integrative CALL: Internet Applications (eg. E-mail communication, FTP, World Wide Web, Chat, Gopher sites, MOO servers, CU-SeeMe, Desktop Video Conferencing) Aim at integrating computer-mediated communication applications for communicative language teaching as follows: E-mail Allow learners to have direct communication around the globe. FTP  Allow learners and teachers to download documents, graphics, sounds, videos, and animation. WWW Learners search and share different kinds of files on the internet (documents, graphics, sounds, video, animation). Chat:  Allow learners to have real time communication. Main Characteristics: Allow computer to incorporate a variety of media from the internet such as text, graphics, sound, animation, and video. Internet resources are linked together by Hypermedia.  Based on communicative. language teaching approach. Built on student's intrinsic motivation for authentic communication. Encourage interactivity between the learner and internet users around the world.  More authentic language learning environments are created.  The four language skills are integrated (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). Focus on a variety of content and multi-cultures.

USES OF CALL IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
 
This section gives a brief overview of how CALL has been used or can be used for the purpose of language learning and teaching. The use of CALL can be divided as follows: (1) Computer as Drill and Practice, (2) Computer as Tutor (3) Computer as Simulation / Problem Solving, (4) Computer as Game, (5) Computer as Tool for ELT teachers and learners, and (6) Applications of Internet for ELT.
 
Computer as drill and practice
 
In this use of CALL, computers are viewed as a tool for saving time with the immediate feedback. The learning principles behind Drill and Practice is the Behaviorism Learning Theory and the Audiolingual approach language to teaching. The main aim of Drill and Practice is to review the content / background knowledge, and to assist the learners to master separate language skills (such as reading, listening, etc.)
Drill and practice consists of three steps: Providing stimulus; Receiving active response from the learner; and Giving immediate feedback.
There are several types of drill and practice activities (exercises) such as Paired Associate (Matching); Sentence Completion; Multiple Choice; Part Identification; True-False; and Short-Answer questions.
 
Well-designed Drill and Practice programs can record the learner’s progress and scores and the time a student spends on each exercise. Some programs add timing features to help the learner to control their speed while practicing. Drill and practice CALL programs in the early years focused on practicing language skills and components separately (such as vocabulary, grammar (such as irregular verbs, past tense, articles), reading, and translation. A lot of drill and practice exercises were produced by classroom teachers. There are several limitations of Drill and Practice exercises such as the lack of interaction and content materials which are not authentic, meaningful, and contextualized (Felix, 1998). As a result, the receptive language drill and practice programs of the 1960s –1970s did not produce enough authentic communication for the learners.
 
Another type of Drill and Practice is so called "contextualized activities" such as gap filling, reconstructing texts, etc. Examples of these programs are those developed in early 1980s such as Cloze exercises, Text reconstruction, and Eclipse (by Higgins), etc. A key authoring program used to generate text reconstruction is Storyboard, written by John Higgins (Levy, 1997).
 
 

Computer as tutor
 
The role of the computer as tutor is to present to the learners the content of the lesson as text graphics, video, animation, or slides, including learning activities, drills and practice. The computer serves as a means for delivering instructional materials.
The program consists of the following stages: Introduction stage (stating aims, background knowledge), Presentation of the content, exercises and/or testing; and Giving the feedback.
Examples of CALL tutorial programs are:

• Grammar : Longman Grammar Software; Grammar Expert Plus; Tense Buster (Clarity Software); Grammar Mastery (ALA); Grammar Rom (Addison Wesley Longman); Grammar 3D: Contextualized Practice for Learners of English (Heinle & Heinle).

• Reading : Read It! Study Skills (Clarity Language Consultants) (EAP reading); RocketReader (1998) (a speed reading program); ReadFlex (Speed Reading); Reading for English (Athelstan) (Reading Comprehension); SEEN: Tutorials for Critical Reading (KenCD Software) (tutorials designed to develop analytical thinking and critical reading skills); Accelerated Reader (Advantage Learning Systems).

• Writing : Paragraph Punch (a writing tutor for effective paragraph); WriteExpress Easy Letters (effective business letters); Power Editing (an interactive tutorial on how to edit and revise sentences); Report Writer for Science and Engineering Reports (Clarity Language Consultants) (EFL/ESL report science and engineer writing).

• Speaking, Pronunciation & Listening: Learn to Speak (The Learning Company); English Pronunciation (1997-98) (Okanagan University College); Dragon, Naturally Speaking (A voice recognition program); See It, Hear It, Say It! (Courseware Publishing International); Accent Improvement (SpeakWare); Real English (Wiser Software).
• Integrated Skills / Courseware: Ellis (CALI), Dynamic English (DynEd); English Discoveries (Berlitz); English Language Development (Jostens); Rosetta Stone (Fairfield Language Technologies); Planet English (Unisearch Ltd and the University of New South Wales); Issues in English (Protea Software); Active English (Courseware Publishing International).

Computer used for simulation / problem solving
 
Simulations and problem solving is used to foster analysis, critical thinking, discussion and writing activities. The computer is not used much for tutorial purposes. The program is designed to create language interaction through problematic situations, conditions or problems challenging for the learner to solve. Many simulation programs are problem solving games, which are entertaining and educational ("edutainment").
Oregon Trail (1995-1998) (CD-ROM)<http://www.cd-romlink.com> is one of the earliest educational simulation problem solving games. The learners are challenged to make a series of decisions to guide their party from Missouri to Oregon by covered wagon. These decisions begin with choosing a departure date, through the daily decisions relating to pace, restocking and direction. The learners face a series of obstacles: fires, floods, injuries, no water, bad water, no grass, food spoilage, etc. The learners have to make life-or-death decisions. Though Oregon Trail is not directly designed for ELT classes, the teacher can create learning activities in both receptive and productive skills.
Other educational simulation problem solving games are Carmen Sandiego, A Day in the Life (1995), and Carmen Sandiego Word Detective (1999), which helps learners to master essential language skills, Amazon Trail II (The Learning Company) which is a simulation of a trip up the Amazon River.
 
Computer as game
 
The main principle behind computer gaming is that "Learning is Fun." The main aim is to create a pleasurable learning environment , and to motivate the language learner. However, good educational games should have clear educational objectives.
CALL games and simulation games are similar in that both are designed to motivate students to learn through entertainment. However, they are different in certain ways. Simulation games always use simulations (real life situations) in the presentation of a game, while CALL games focus on providing fun, but challenging environment to the learner. Though CALL games have clear learning objectives, they are different from Tutorials and Drill and Practice. The main function of CALL games is not so much to present the language content as tutorials do but to provide entertainment to the learner.
Examples of CALL vocabulary games are Spelling Games, Spelling Bee and Magic Hat, Scrambled Word, Word Worm, Hangman, Word Order, Find a Word, Word Puzzles, Spelling Buddy, Cross Words, I Love Spelling (DK multimedia), Scrabble Deluxe (Virgin Games) (Computerized version of the board game), etc.

LINK:  http://web.warwick.ac.uk/CELTE/tr/ovCALL/booklet1.htm